Science – Page 10 – The Speaker News Journal

Deforestation Now Driven by “Globalization and Commercialization” – Report

October 24, 2014 by Sid Douglas

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The nature of deforestation has changed dramatically in recent years, according to a new study by Chalmers University Scientists. Deforestation today is driven by globalization and commercialization to a large and increasing degree–international trade is contributing to deforestation through a demand for beef, soy, palm oil and timber.

“From having been caused mainly by smallholders and production for local markets, an increasing share of deforestation today is driven by large-scale agricultural production for international markets,” said Martin Persson, lead researcher on the study.

Persson’s team looked at seven major deforestation case countries–Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea–and found that one-third to one-half of deforestation could be attributed to overseas trade.

Deforestation Now Driven by Globalization and Commercialization, Deforestation, Globalization, Commercialization, rain forests — Martin Persson

“More than a third of global deforestation can be tied to rising production of beef, soy, palm oil and wood products,” said Persson. “If we exclude Brazilian beef production, which is mainly destined for domestic markets, more than half of deforestation in our case countries is driven by international demand.”

“The trend is clear, the drivers of deforestation have been globalized and commercialized.”

The study was commissioned by the Center for Global Development (CGD) and was completed by Martin Persson of Chalmers University of Technology and colleagues in Linkoping, Sweden, and Vienna, Austria.

In addition to their findings about market trends, the research team found that 1.7 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions could be linked to production of the commodities analyzed in the study–and one-third of that amount was due to commodity exports.

The research also found trends in the response of companies to the negative publicity associated with deforestation.

“Another key trend is that more and more corporations have pledged to rid their supply chains from deforestation,” said Persson. “Pushed by environmental organizations and seeing the risks of being associated with environmental destruction, companies like Unilever and McDonalds are pressuring their suppliers to stop expanding production on forest land.”

The countries on the receiving end of the commodities produced through deforestation were China and EU nations. It was not enough, Persson said, to blame the nations in which deforestation occurs.

“Today both public and private consumers, be it individuals or corporations, have the possibility to contribute to the protection of tropical forests by holding suppliers accountable for the environmental impacts of their production,” Persson concluded.

By Sid Douglas

Photo: gillyan9

The Season in Which You Were Born Can Influence Your Personality for Life, Study Finds

October 24, 2014October 23, 2014 by Ray Korshunova

The Season in Which You Were Born Influences Your Personality for Life, Study Finds

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According to a new study by researchers at Semmelweis University, Hungary, the season you were born in significantly affects your personality. Season of birth has traditionally been viewed as an indicator of personality in cultures around the world, and has been integrated into natural sciences such as astrology, but until now mood has not been linked to personality by science.

“Biochemical studies have shown that the season in which you are born has an influence on certain monoamine neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, which is detectable even in adult life,” commented lead researcher on the study, Xenia Gonda, an assistant professor at the Department of Clinical and Theoretical Mental Health at Semmelweis University, Budapest. “This led us to believe that birth season may have a longer-lasting effect. Our work looked at over 400 subjects and matched their birth season to personality types in later life. Basically, it seems that when you are born may increase or decrease your chance of developing certain mood disorders”.

“We can’t yet say anything about the mechanisms involved,” said Gonda in a recent press briefing. “What we are now looking at is to see if there are genetic markers which are related to season of birth and mood disorder”.

The study was undertaken by researchers from Budapest, Hungary, and is being presented at the European College of CNP Congress in Berlin.

The research team found statistically significant trends for people born in each of the seasons.

Those born in summer exhibited rapid, frequent swings between sad and cheerful moods–called cyclothymic temperament–in comparison with those born in winter. Summer babies, as well as those born in spring, also more frequently exhibited a tendency to be excessively positive–called hyperthymic temperament.

Winter babies showed a significantly lower tendency to be prone to irritable temperament than babies born at any other time of the year. Winter babies also, however, showed higher tendency to depressive temperament than those born in autumn.

Professor Eduard Vieta of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology in Barcelona commented on the research, “Seasons affect our mood and behavior. Even the season at our birth may influence our subsequent risk for developing certain medical conditions, including some mental disorders.

“What’s new from this group of researchers is the influence of season at birth and temperament,” said Vieta. “Temperaments are not disorders but biologically-driven behavioral and emotional trends. Although both genetic and environmental factors are involved in one’s temperament, now we know that the season at birth plays a role too. And the finding of ‘high mood’ tendency (hyperthymic temperament) for those born in summer is quite intriguing.”

By Ray Korshunova

Increasing Daylight Savings Could Have Worthwhile Public Health Benefits – Report

October 24, 2014October 23, 2014 by Heidi Woolf

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According to a new report by scientists at the University of Bristol, additional daylight savings could have public health benefits. The study looked at daylight savings increases as a possible public health intervention, and found evidence that an increase would increase physical activity among children.

“This study provides the strongest evidence to date that, in Europe and Australia, evening daylight plays a role in increasing physical activity in the late afternoon and early evening – the ‘critical hours’ for children’s outdoor play. Introducing additional daylight savings measures would affect each and every child in the country, every day of the year, giving it a far greater reach than most other potential policy initiatives to improve public health,” said Dr. Anna Goodman, Lecturer at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine at the University of Bristol and one of the researchers on the project.

The study, “Daylight saving time as a potential public health intervention: an observational study of evening daylight and objectively measured physical activity among 23,000 children from 9 countries,” was authored by the University of Bristol’s Anna Goodman, Angie S Page and Ashley R Coope, and was published in the International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity. The study was funded by the UK National Prevention Research Initiative, and Anna Goodman’s contribution was funded by the National Institute for Health Research.

In the research, over 23,000 children aged 5-16 years were studied in nine countries (England, Australia, USA, Norway, Denmark, Estonia, Switzerland, Brazil and Madeira, and Portugal). The scientists looked at physical activity data before and after the clocks changed. The data was matched to the time of sunset, as well as daily precipitation, humidity, wind speed, temperature and other weather characteristics.

Independent of weather factors, longer evening daylight was found to be associated with a modest but not insignificant increase in daily physical activity. The associations were consistently observed in five European, four English and two Australian samples, where children added two minutes of physical activity per day as a result of longer evening sunlight.

Although two minutes may at first seem a small amount of time, two minutes per child in a large population can amount to millions of minutes of extra physical activity per day, the researchers noted.

“We therefore conclude that, by shifting the physical activity mean of the entire population, the introduction of additional daylight saving measures could yield worthwhile public health benefits,” the researchers wrote.

“While the introduction of further daylight savings measures certainly wouldn’t solve the problem of low physical activity, we believe they are a step in the right direction,” said senior author Ashley Cooper, Professor of Physical Activity and Public Health at the University of Bristol.

By Heidi Woolf

Paralyzed Man Walks Again After Cell Transplant Breakthrough

October 21, 2014 by Heidi Woolf

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In a world first, movement and sensation have been returned to a man who was paralyzed four years ago. After a pioneering cell transplant using special cells that naturally regenerate, 40-year-old Darek Fidyka is walking again.

“When you can’t feel almost half your body, you are helpless, but when it starts coming back it’s like you are born again,” said Fidyka, who is now able to walk with the support of a frame. Fidyka said the restoration of his legs was “an incredible experience.”

Fidyka, now 40, was paralyzed after being stabbed multiple times in his back during an attack in 2010. He remained paralyzed with no signs of recovery for two years after the accident, despite extensive physiotherapy.

Scientists took olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) from one of Fidyka’s olfactory bulbs, grew the cells in culture, and micro-injected about 500,000 cells (an amount that can be conceptualized as a drop of liquid) into the gap in Fidyka’s spinal chord to stimulate repair and regrowth. The team made about 100 micro-injections above and below the injury site.

OECs are part of the sense of smell. They are nerve fibers that constantly regenerate.

The treatment was successful after about three months. Fidyka began putting on muscle in his thigh. After six months, Fidyka took his first steps along the parallel bars.

Two years after treatment, Fidyka can walk outside using a frame. Bladder, bowel and sexual function has also partially recovered.

The scientists involved believe that OECs provided a pathway whereby fibers around the injury site can reconnect–essentially using the nerve grafts to bridge the gap.

“You are making history now,” lead scientist Prof Geoff Raisman, chair of neural regeneration at University College London’s Institute of Neurology, told Fidyka. “To me, this is more impressive than a man walking on the moon.”

“We’re at the point now of where Barnard was with the first heart operation,” said Chef David Nicholls, who funded a great deal of the research through the organization UK Stem Cell Foundation (UKSCF), which Nichols founded after his son was paralyzed in a swimming accident in 2003.

“It’s amazing to see how regeneration of the spinal cord, something that was thought impossible for many years, is becoming a reality,” said Dr Pawel Tabakow, consultant neurosurgeon at Wroclaw University Hospital, who led the Polish research team.

The scientists are currently undertaking the next leg of their research: a controlled clinical trial involving 10 patients.

“The first patient is an inspirational and important step, which brings years of laboratory research towards the clinical testbed,” said Sir Richard Sykes, chair of the UK Stem Cell Foundation. “To fully develop future treatments that benefit the 3 million paralysed globally will need continued investment for wide scale clinical trials.”

The research was supported by the Nicholls Spinal Injury Foundation (NSIF) and the UKSCF, and the most recent report on Fidyka was published in Cell Transplantation.

By Heidi Woolf

Men and Women Judge Art Differently, According to New Study

October 14, 2014October 10, 2014 by Joseph Reight

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Whose art is worth more? The ordinary painter who just took up the craft or the authentic artist who has spent 20 years working at it and believes he will paint until he dies? According to a new joint marketing study, women and men judge the value of art differently, and how an artist is presented could have a significant effect on how much of the $65bn worldwide art market he or she will claim.

The research looked at the responses of 518 subjects–male and female–to two unfamiliar paintings which were each accompanied by a fabricated artist biography. Some participants read a biography that described the artist as an ordinary painter who only recently took up art. Other participants read a biography that described a much more authentic painter.

Men and Women Judge Art Differently (2) — Stephanie Mangus

“The more authentic artist was described as having been painting for over 20 years and believes they will paint ‘until he dies,'” Stephanie Mangus, assistant professor in MSU’s Broad College of Business and an author of the report, told The Speaker.

Both male and female subjects were found to be more willing to buy the more authentic artist’s work and to pay a higher price for that work.

However, males were much more likely to base their decisions on the artist’s “brand” than females, according to the research.

Women were more likely to “go through a complicated process of actually evaluating the artwork,” the researchers found.

“Regarding the complicated process,” Mangus explained to us, “women rely more heavily on the attitude they form toward the art itself, even if they are not an art expert, when determining their behavioral intentions toward the art (purchase and purchase price). Women rely more strongly than men on their own judgments of the actual piece of artwork. Men, in contrast, place more emphasis on the attitude they develop toward the artist when making these same downstream decisions related to purchase and price.”

The research has several implications, for both business and the everyday art viewer, Mangus told us.

“On the management/business side, we would like the folks that manage artists and other creative sorts (and even brands) to understand that authenticity is important to consumers. Consistency between an artist’s authentic ‘story’ and the image/brand they present to the outside world factors into how consumers judge them and their work. Ultimately, whether or not artists make any money off of consumers is partially a function of their authenticity and ability to convey it.

“On the consumer side, it’s a nice note to the non-connoisseur that they can still make evaluations of art and not shy away from making these types of decisions.”

The findings may extend to other creator-based product industries as well, such as clothing, shoe, jewelry and restaurant and food industries.

“While designers and chefs oftentimes operate in the background, this research suggests that more emphatically communicating their passion and commitment to their craft could significantly benefit that brand’s image and sales,” the team found.

The report may also help to fill in the dearth of consumer research relating to the steadily growing art market, according to Mangus, which has outperformed the equities market during the past 10 years of growth.

“For the average person trying to purchase art, knowing something about the artist–and knowing that the artist is authentic–can reduce the risk of buying a worthless piece,” Mangus stated. “All consumers in the study, but especially men, evaluated art with a strong emphasis on how motivated and passionate the artist was. So if you’re an artist or if you’re managing an artist, developing that human brand–getting the message across that you’re authentic–becomes essential.”

The report was authored by Julie Guidry Moulard from Louisiana Tech University, Dan Hamilton Rice from Louisiana State University and Carolyn Popp Garrity from Birmingham-Southern College, in addition to Mangus, and was published in Psychology & Marketing.

By Joseph Reight

After Death Consciousness Suggested by Largest Near-Death Experience Study

October 14, 2014October 7, 2014 by Cheryl Bretton

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According to the largest study ever conducted treating near-death experiences, evidence suggests that there is consciousness after clinical death.

A University of Southampton team spent four years examining 2,060 cardiac arrest patients at 15 different hospitals on three continents.

The report, “AWAREness during CPR: Be careful with what you say!” was authored by Drs Edgardo Olvera-Lopez and Joseph Varon, and was published in Resuscitation magazine.

Overall, the team found that 40 percent of people who survived cardiac arrest–140 of 330 people–described some kind of awareness during the time they were clinically dead.

The kinds of experiences reported by the survivors included an unusual sense of peacefulness and alterations in time perception. Some said time slowed down while other said it speeded up.

Some survivors reported seeing a bright light. Some described it as a golden flash or like the Sun shining.

Others, however, reported feelings of fear, of drowning or being pulled down through deep water.

Of the survivors, 13 percent reported experiences commonly referred to as out-of-body. Another 13 percent reported that their senses had been heightened.

“We know the brain can’t function when the heart has stopped beating,” said Dr Sam Parnia, a former research fellow at Southampton University, now at the State University of New York. However, Parnia went on to describe specific instances of patients who reported things that suggested that after death consciousness was possible, including accounts of out-of-body like experiences.

Dr Jerry Nolan, Editor-in-Chief at Resuscitation said: “Dr Parnia and his colleagues are to be congratulated on the completion of a fascinating study that will open the door to more extensive research into what happens when we die.”

By Cheryl Bretton

Recession Means Many Women Will Never Have a Child – Study

October 7, 2014 by The Speaker Editors

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Most studies have concluded that unemployment in the short run leads to a drop in fertility, but whether the negative effects persist–whether women simply postpone childbearing or if the effect is more long-term–has remained unknown. According to a recent study by Princeton University, living through a recession means that some women will never have a child, and a major recession such as that experienced in the US in 2008-2009 may cause losses of hundreds of thousands of births.

“Fertility falls when unemployment rises, but there may be no long-run effect if women simply postpone childbearing,” considered the authors of the study, but after completing their research the team concluded that unemployment not only causes drops in fertility in the short-term, but over time the negative effects actually increase. This increase was found to be characterized largely by women who did not have any children as a result of living through a recession in their early 20s.

Photo credit: Eileen Barroso — Dr Janet Currie

“The effects are actually bigger in the long run than in the short run,” Dr. Janet Currie, Henry Putnam, Professor of Economics and Public Affairs Director of the Center for Health and Well-Being at Princeton, told The Speaker.

“Macroeconomic events really matter for individual people’s lives, and can have a profound effect on them,” said Currie.

She commented on those women who were most vulnerable to fluctuations in employment rates. “What matters is unemployment in the early 20s. So a deeper recession at that time of a woman’s life would lead to fewer births long-term.”

The report, “Short- and long-term effects of unemployment on fertility,” was authored by Curie and Dr Hannes Schwandt at Princeton University, and was published in the current edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The team analyzed the effect of unemployment by following fixed groups of US-born women. The team looked at year of birth and state in which the women lived, and drew on 140 million US birth records for the period 1975-2010.

They found that only a one percent decrease in the employment rate during a woman’s life from between the ages of 20-24 caused a drop in short-term fertility by six conceptions per 1,000 women.

When those women were assessed at their 40th year, that same one percent drop during their early 20s was associated with an overall drop in conceptions of 14.2 per 1,000 women.

Taking this finding to the national level, the effects of a major recession can account for hundreds of thousands of lost births.

“On a national scale effects of the magnitude we find suggest a loss of about 400,000 births stemming from the ‘Great Recession’ that started in 2008,” Currie told us.

“This larger long-term effect is driven largely by women who remain childless.”

By Day Blakely Donaldson

Short Weight Lifting Sessions Boost Memory [video]

October 14, 2014October 6, 2014 by Cheryl Bretton

Short Weight Lifting Sessions Boost Memory, Research Finds

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According to a new study led by the Georgia Institute of Technology, just one short burst of weight-lifting can enhance long-term memory for young adults by around 10 percent.

“Our study indicates that people don’t have to dedicate large amounts of time to give their brain a boost,” said Lisa Weinberg, a graduate student and the Georgie Institute of Technology and leader of the research.

The report, “A single bout of resistance exercise can enhance episodic memory performance,” was published in the journal Acta Psychologica.

Previous research had already established that exercise could improve memory, but much subsequent research had focused on regular sessions of aerobic exercise, such as running.

Th Georgia Institute research looked instead at the effect of just one weight-lifting session conducted two days before a memory test.

The test subjects were asked to monitor a series of 90 random photographs–but not memorize them–and afterwards work out on a leg resistance machine.

Half of the subjects did leg exercises–50 leg presses at their maximum ability–and half of the subjects did no exercise.

Two days later, when participants were again shown the series of images along with 90 new images, the leg press group was able to remember the first set of photos at a 60 percent rate, while the group that did no exercise recalled the first images at a 50 percent rate.

The research based its approach on recent studies on animals that had suggested physical stress after learning can strengthen memory formation.

“Even without doing expensive fMRI scans, our results give us an idea of what areas of the brain might be supporting these exercise-induced memory benefits,” said Audrey Duarte, a researcher involved in the study. “The findings are encouraging because they are consistent with rodent literature that pinpoints exactly the parts of the brain that play a role in stress-induced memory benefits caused by exercise.”

By Cheryl Bretton

[su_youtube url=”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ikartHi08XU”][su_youtube url=”https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=ctbc9kw1oHA”][/su_youtube]

Public Votes Pluto Is a Planet at Harvard-Smithsonian Meeting

October 14, 2014October 1, 2014 by Joseph Reight

International Astronomical Union Meets to Define Planets, Votes Pluto Should Be a Planet Again

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The Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics held a meeting last week to discuss the definition of what a planet is, and whether Pluto–which had its planet status removed in 2006 after a vote by the International Astronomical Union (IAU)–should be considered a planet. Three experts paneled the meeting, and each argued for or against Pluto as a planet. The audience then voted.

Pluto has not been considered a planet since 2006, when the IAU met for the same purpose.

In 2005, the discovery of an object, later called Eris, which was farther out than Pluto, and which was larger and more massy than Pluto, disrupted the nine-planet concept of the Solar System. Astronomers met to make a final decision on the definition of a planet at the 26th General Assembly of the IAU in the summer of 2006.

At the 2006 meeting, astronomers voted on the definition of a planet and the status of Pluto. They had three options: maintain the traditional nine-planet Solar System, add three planets of similar size to Pluto–including Eris and Ceres–or remove Pluto and adopt an eight-planet Solar System.

Controversially, they voted for an eight-planet system. Pluto and Eris became “dwarf planets.”

The IAU decided three criteria needed to be met to be considered a planet: the object must orbit the sun, it must have sufficient gravity to pull itself into spherical shape, and it must have “cleared the neighborhood” of its orbit. Pluto had not achieved the last of these criteria.

Today, many astronomers and the public are still uncertain about what exactly defines a planet, but the meeting last week reconsidered the definition, and Pluto.

Three experts presented their case, and the audience voted on the status of Pluto.

One expert, Gareth Williams, associate director at the IAU Minor Planet Center, who was opposed to making Pluto a planet, argued, “Jupiter has cleared its neighborhood. Earth has cleared its neighborhood. Ceres, which is in the main asteroid belt, hasn’t. Pluto hasn’t. In my world, Pluto is not a planet.”

However, the two other experts thought Pluto should be a planet. Historian Owen Gingerich thought that the concept of “planet” is one that is culturally defined and changes over time, and Dimitar Sasselov, director of Harvard’s planetary program, thought that a planet was the smallest spherical lump of matter formed around stars or stellar remnants, so Pluto qualified as a planet.

The audience voted, and found in favor of Pluto being counted a planet.

By Joseph Reight

The Full Debate About Planets and Pluto:

[su_youtube_advanced url=”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RNGSuFqmro”]

More information: Universe Today

Birth, Life and Death of Recently Discovered Microscopic Habitats Described by Research Biochemist

August 16, 2014 by The Speaker Editors

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Microscopic habitats, hosting communities of microorganisms formed over geologic time periods, self-sufficient but not self-sustained, have been discovered within droplets of water in the oil of Trinidad’s Pitch Lake, the world’s largest natural asphalt deposit. Researcher Dr Tillmann Lueders explained to The Speaker about the births, lives and possible deaths of these tiny worlds.

The report, “Water droplets in oil are microhabitats for microbial life,” was completed by lead researcher Rainer U. Meckenstock and his team of Frederick von Netzer, Christine Stumpp, Tillmann Lueders, Anne M. Himmelberg, Norbert Hertkorn, Philipp Schmitt-Kopplin, Mourad Harir, Riad Hosein, Shirin Haque, Dirk Schulze-Makuch, and was published in Science.

Birth, Life and Death of Recently Discovered Microscopic Habitats Described by Research Biochemist (17) — Dr Leuders, a co-author of the report

So far, no photographic images of these newly discovered microhabitats have been possible–the process by which the droplets would be photographed would also destroy them–but Dr Lueders gave The Speaker details about the nature of the microhabitats–how they are formed, how they sustain themselves, and how they may end.

“We envisage them as 1-3 microliter aqueous microspheres, with some microbes swimming around in the lumen, but most sitting attached to the oil-water interface,” Lueders told us.

Describing the origin of the microhabitats, Lueders explained, “The salinity and water isotopes measured in the droplet water tell us that it stems from the deep subsurface. Minimally, these habitats were formed by mixing processes during the ascent of the oil from the reservoir to pitch lake. Maximally, the droplets were present already in the reservoir itself.

“The time periods involved here are geologic. The reservoir seems to have been formed during the Miocene, but we are not experts to tell over what time scales the oil ascents.”

When asked about the ability of the microhabitats to maintain themselves over time, Leuders commented, “In principle, these micro-habitats should be self-sufficient over very long time scales, albeit at very low activities. However, they are not self-sustained, as would be the case for a perpetuum mobile system.”

The microbes feed on hydrocarbons and perform metabolism by methanogenesis–they breathe methane instead of oxygen. Only Archaea–a domain phylogenetically distinct from eukaryotes and bacteria–perform this type of respiration, which is the final step in the decomposition of biomass in most environments.

“Our grasp is that the microbes thrive on the hydrocarbons, which are their source of carbon and energy. These are too abundant to ever be depleted. Since there is nothing else to respire, methanogenesis becomes the terminal respiratory process, producing methane from the oil.”

The end of a microhabitat may come about through a sudden explosion, in a process called ebullition. In ebullition, methane bubbles build up, forming ever-larger pockets that eventually burst due to pressure, dispersing the methane throughout the soil. Lueders explained, however, that ebullition may not be the real end of microhabitats:

“Methane ebullition could eventually destroy–or disperse–a single droplet habitat, but also cause recycling and formation of larger water droplet habitats. Thus the age of any single water droplet may be impossible to determine, we see this more as a steady-state continuum.”

More details about the nature of the microhabitats will be addressed in the research team’s future work, Lueders told us. Also, the formidable task of developing elaborate non-invasive or conservative methods of looking into the microhabitats will be explored, meaning photographic images may also become possible.

By Day Blakely Donaldson

Some Lies More Destructive Than Others – Study Simulates Various Kinds of Lies and Their Effect on Social Cohesion

October 17, 2014July 29, 2014 by The Speaker Editors

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Scientists at Aalto University School of Science in Finland have conducted a study in which they found that some lies may be more destructive to society than others, and that some types of lies may be essential to the growth of cohesive social networks.

“There is no society without lies,” stated lead researcher Rafael Barrio, a theoretical physicist at Aalto University.

The report, “Effects of deception in social networks,” was completed by Gerardo Iñiguez, Tzipe Govezensky, Robin Dunbar, Kimmo Kaski and Rafael A. Barrio at Finland’s Aalto University School of Science, and was published in Proceedings of the Royal Society.

In their research, the Aalto University team differentiated between selfish lies–protecting oneself at the expense of others or lying to purposefully hurt others–and “white lies,” such as encouraging a child’s early attempts at performing music, which are generally socially acceptable. The researchers called these two types of lies antisocial and prosocial lies.

Robin Dunbar, one of the researchers on the team, told The Speaker, “The model is based on the impact that lies have: selfish lies are those where the individual gains a benefit at the expense of the recipient, whereas prosocial lies (fibs) are those where the recipient (or at least the relationship between the liar and the recipient) benefits. Prosocial lies are of the kind we do when we “Like” someone’s Facebook page post even when we don’t in fact like it at all, but feel we ought to.”

The team created a virtual scenario where 200 virtual individuals with various fixed opinions engaged in 200,000 interactions. By adjusting the honesty level of individuals, as well as the types of lies told, the researchers observed differing social developments.

There researchers found differences based prosocial and antisocial lying. “Antisocial lying causes social networks to become increasingly fragmented,” the report stated. “Antisocial dishonesty thus places strong constraints on the size and cohesion of social communities, providing a major hurdle that organisms have to overcome (e.g. by evolving counter-deception strategies) in order to evolve large, socially cohesive communities.

“In contrast, white lies can prove to be beneficial in smoothing the flow of interactions and facilitating a larger, more integrated network.”

After running a number of scenarios, the researchers found that a perfectly honest society increased trust over time and resulted in a well-connected group.

The introduction of antisocial liars led to fragmentation of the network. Small, tightly connected groups of honest individuals formed. The small groups were weakly connected to other small groups by dishonest individuals. When all individuals engaged in antisocial lying the result was complete isolation.

When prosocial lies were factored in, however, the social fabric was not destroyed. Instead, two large communities formed. The communities were composed of like-minded honest agents, and were based on shared opinions. Between the two groups, mostly dishonest agents provided a weak connection.

Based on their findings, the researchers concluded that some kinds of lying could actually enhance cohesiveness in society.

“Our results demonstrate that these group-level effects can arise as emergent properties of interactions at the dyadic level,” the report read. “The balance between prosocial and antisocial lies may set constraints on the structure of social networks, and hence the shape of society as a whole.”

The researchers also found that when individuals were initially undecided as to their opinions, prosocial lies reduced indecisiveness.

By James Haleavy

“We Were Playing With Memory Like a Yo-Yo” – Scientists Create and Erase Memories

October 15, 2014July 27, 2014 by The Speaker Editors

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Researchers at University of California have demonstrated the ability to create memories, erase them and create them again. The researchers used light-sensitive proteins and optical fibers to enact long-term potentiation between neurons, creating new associations.

“We could do it over and over, once we knew how to do it,” University of California lead researcher Roberto Malinow told The Speaker.

In the study, researchers prepared the rats by injecting their brains with a virus that had been modified by a gene that produces a light-sensitive protein. The gene, once translated into protein, could be activated by a pulse of blue light delivered by an optical fiber the researchers had implanted in the rats’ brains.

Researchers fired a beam of light to the neurons that connect the sound processing region of the brain with a fear-related region, and then shocked the rats with electricity. The action created a memory of fear of sound.

“We can make a memory of something that the animal never experienced before,” Malinow said of the procedure.

The experiment was based on classic conditioning, wherein a tone is played to an animal followed by an electric shock. The animals develop a fear reaction to the tone.

The researchers then sought to erase the fear of sound they had created. They exposed the rats to a sequence of light pulses, which enacted long-term depression between the effected neurons. The rats no longer showed fear when a tone was simulated in the brain.

Fear could be created and erased over and over again, the researchers found. “We were playing with memory like a yo-yo,” stated Malinow.

Although in the study the researchers focused specific instance of memory, Malinow told us that the research had broader, though limited applications. “In our case, we focussed on a very specific memory–one we created artificially. In theory, one could do it to any memory.” However, Malinow told us, in practice it would be very difficult.

Regarding other types of memories, Malinow elaborated, “We don’t know which synapses are modified for any specific natural memory. Even if we did, it would be very difficult to control selectively the activity of just those synapses.”

The method used in the study, long-term potentiation (LPT), was discovered during research experiments in the 1960s and 70s when repeated bursts of electricity to a neuron in the hippocampus seemed to increase the cell’s ability to communicate with a neighboring neuron. Scientists have long theorized that LPT is the basis of memory.

The research has significance in the areas of health, particularly in the treatment of Alzheimer’s. Malinow mentioned several questions the team sought to answer with their research.

“Scientifically, we can use this methodology to probe many unanswered questions about memory,” Malinow said. “Does the material that builds up in Alzheimer’s disease actively remove memories? Can this be prevented? How can we inactivate (unwanted) memories? Is there a combination of drugs and behavioral protocols that could inactivate memories? What is the relation between protocol details and duration of memory?”

The University of California team is currently pursuing some of these issues.

By James Haleavy